Water Purification; Science Giving Us The Liquid Of Life
Without the modern water purification process we as a race would be susceptible to far more endemics and illnesses. The fact that we have such a dedicated water purification system is testament to the modern world we live in. Its development has allowed civilisations to grow while today it provides us with cheap and clean drinking water. The process however is not made up of one component however; it is a multi stage practice that utilises a number of different water purification methods. It is hoped that this article, a study into the different purifying methods, will give the reader a greater appreciation of what goes into their glass of tap water.
The first stage is a rather basic wire mesh that sits at the opening of the inlet to purification plant. The purpose of this mesh is to prevent large pieces of debris such as trees and dead fish from passing into the plant. Ultimately this is the first step in a process that supplies a crystal clear, life giving and thirst quenching liquid.
Purification methods do differ however for the different applications it is to be used for. Some plants purify water for the chemical, industrial and medical industries and hence this water has, in some cases, got be purer than the water we drink. Each of these plants has a method of processing the water so that it meets the demands of whatever scientific or medical application it is needed for. In some cases this process may take twice as long as regular treatment due to the exacting nature of some industrial and scientific uses.
In some scientific applications it is vital that for the water to be suitable all minerals and salts must be removed. This differs from tap water in the way that minerals are left in for health reasons. These reason some sciences require them to be removed is that they can interfere with the results of experiments and testing. The ways in which these minerals and salts are removed range from chemical disinfectants to UV lights and distillation. All work towards producing the most pure sample of water possible.
Public water purification is not as exacting but equally important. The process normally starts out at a lake or reservoir where the mesh removes the largest debris. The mesh and filters that carry out this process get smaller further through the process to produce water that is free from visible debris on entry to the plant. These filters however have to be cleaned regularly to free any extraordinarily large debris items.
The next stage involves adding chemicals and especially chlorine to the water in order to neutralise the liquid so it reaches a neutral pH level. It is only after the water is pH neutral that it is sent through for disinfection. This is when flocculation occurs, another process of filtering and adding chemical agents that removes items from the sample and bacteria.
One of the most important methods of purification is in fact one of the most simple. This is sedimentation and in lay man 's terms this simply means letting the water sit until all of the particles settle to the bottom. The clear water is then pumped into another sedimentation tank and is repeated a number of times to ensure any particles are completely removed. After this chlorine is once again added to prevent any bacterial growth on the transit from plant to tap.
Amazingly this is the process that gives us the most important liquid in life. Naturally this has been in extremely simplified terms and does not delve into the more complex procedures involved. Even so, it is an amazing process that all should understand so they further appreciate the work that goes into giving them drinking water.
Showing posts with label Science. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Science. Show all posts
Friday, November 7, 2008
The Singularity and the Dawn of Artificial Intelligence
The Singularity and the Dawn of Artificial Intelligence
Growth in computer speeds and capabilities has accelerated at an almost exponential rate since the 1960s. The changes show no signs of slowing down as the 21st Century continues. Intel co-founder Gordon Moore predicted the growth in computing technology in 1965 stating that processor speeds and memory sizes would continue to double every two years. His predictions have proved to be entirely accurate and all progression in computing has followed the trends he laid out.
The Internet and mobile computing technology have been the most visible and significant developments in society since the start of the 21st Century. With the world 's information and ever-increasingly powerful computers at people 's fingertips it is interesting to wonder where the technology may go and what future inventions hold in store.
Looking back at developments in media over the lifespan of humanity it is easy to see a clear path from the advent of language to writing, art, music, radio, television, computers and the Internet. Each stage of this development signified a great leap forward in civilisation and quality of living. What is interesting to note is that it takes less and less time to progress to each stage as we move on. The jump from basic language to writing took thousands of years, and then thousands more to art and music. From the renaissance to the invention of radio was just a few hundred years, television arriving just decades afterwards. The world wide web reached global use within a decade of its inception.
Each of these technological leaps are notable for the fact that they would engulf the previous development. Remember the song Television Killed the Radio Star? Well it proved to be oddly prophetic as television replaced radio as the primary source of entertainment and news in the home, just as the Internet has done to both in the 2000s. The Internet is perhaps even more significant as it is looking like it will render all previous technologies obsolete, entirely engulfing them. It is possible to watch TV, listen to radio, read the news, do your shopping and almost everything in-between online. Anything that the Internet does not engulf it will become an intrinsic part of.
Given its almost certain all-pervasive nature it can be hard to see where the next leap forward may come from. What could supersede the Internet? It is foolish to think that nothing will, after all would renaissance painters have predicted the rise of television and radio? Would people in the 1940s have predicted the introduction of mobile phones and personal computers? Just because we cannot see the next step it does not mean it will not happen. At some stage the Internet will become consumed itself.
Currently all advances in technology have been made due to human intelligence. It is what separated us from animals to begin with, and it is what continues to drive us now. Ever more complex leaps have been possible as intelligence is pooled and people are able to collaborate on how to solve problems that will lead to the next advancement. Language allowed communication, and then writing allowed the storage of ideas and the passing of information to other tribes and individuals. Radio, television and Internet technology in the 20th Century has opened up human intelligence to everyone as communication becomes instantaneous world-wide. The global nature of communication in the 20th and 21st centuries are inevitably why our greatest achievements have come in the last hundred years. It is no accident that the industrial revolution occurred with the introduction of the telephone and long range communication.
So taking the fact that human intelligence and communication is guiding the development of civilisation it is reasonable to expect that we will reach the point where our own intellects are unable to take us further. I believe we are reaching the point where communication and the sharing of ideas will start to plateau. We already have instant communication to anywhere on the planet and future developments in this area will only be able to accelerate this process. Granted, faster and faster Internet access will help a great deal in sharing scientific data, but at some stage we will need greater-than-human intelligence. Some people, such as the Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence, believe that this will come from a form of artificial intelligence either through an AI software or augmentation of the human brain.
The birth of an artificial super intelligence is often referred to as the singularity in reference to the singularity of a black hole. Similar to the black hole where known laws of physics break down in the singularity at the centre so would our model of the world once it contained intelligences greater than our own. There are many technologies already combining to create an artificial intelligence and many scientists believe that the singularity will occur during our lifetimes. Certainly if Moore 's Law and the accelerating rate of paradigm shifts are anything to go by then this prediction seems reasonable.
The creation of a truly super-human AI would completely change the world and our way of living extremely rapidly. It is thought that the invention of this AI would be the last thing that the human race ever needs to design. An AI with above human intelligence would then have above human capacity to improve itself. By improving itself once it would then become more intelligent than it was before, enabling it to improve itself further. This positive feedback loop would lead to the AI becoming massively intelligent and powerful very quickly, it is possible that civilisation would change overnight as the AI exponentially increases in intelligence.
By point of comparison human neurons can send signals at a speed of 150 metres per second and the speed of light is 300,000,000 metres per second, two million times faster than the human mind. The Singularity Institute states that an increase in speed of thought by a factor of one million would mean a subjective year would take only 31 seconds and the time from ancient Greece until now would take twenty two hours. The evolution from primates to humans needed an increase in brain capacity by a factor of three. The difference between us and chimpanzees is unarguably large, so it seems easy to agree that an intelligence many factors greater than ours and magnitudes faster would be capable of things far beyond our comprehension. We are as capable of guessing what it could do as chimps are of predicting the rise of human civilisation given that the gap between brain power would be similar.
Along with the theories of a singularity and the birth of intelligent machines there are always the inevitable doomsday scenarios thought to be possible such as those depicted in films such as the Matrix and the Terminator. It is hard to say what the AI would do, and eliminating the human race may well be in its best interests. However it is likely that considerable work will go into making the AI an ally of its creators and to build a system that we are capable of working alongside to accelerate our development and improve our living conditions and understanding of the world around us. There is already a lot of work being done to ensure this happens and that we avoid the doom that popular fiction predicts.
An interesting thought is to combine the theory of the singularity with that of natural selection. We already know that machines can do things that we are incapable of doing. Robotic probes are exploring places inaccessible to humans, countless examples are visible in space exploration programs. There are robotic vehicles on Mars exploring the terrain. The landscape is too harsh for a human visitor with our current technology but machines have already made the journey. Probes have been sent to every planet in the solar system and some have even left it entirely.
It may be that mechanical life is simply more suited than carbon-based life to the conditions of the universe. A machine does not need to eat or breathe and will be able to survive low and high atmospheric pressures, making them perfect for extra terrestrial exploration. The machines will need a power source, but provided that they develop a reliably powerful way of creating energy then in theory there is nothing to stop them from colonising the solar system relatively quickly.
Machines and artificial intelligences could simply be the next step in the evolution of life on Earth, it is hard to see any animal rising above humans now with the control that we exert over the planet. By the time the Earth is swallowed into the Sun it may be that it is inhabited solely by mechanical life forms, all of which are better suited to escaping the supernova from the death of the star. In terms of the eventual fate of the planet is is clear that machines and artificial intelligence is more suited to continued existence with its capability to migrate to different planets.
By Darwinian theory it may even be said that artificial intelligence is more suited to life on Earth and will replace the life that we know today. It is certainly an interesting concept and we may even find out whether it will come true within the next fifty years. With any luck the creation of a super-intelligent machine will bring a time of great advancement that solves a lot of the major problems that face humanity today and massively enhance the standard of living across the planet.
Growth in computer speeds and capabilities has accelerated at an almost exponential rate since the 1960s. The changes show no signs of slowing down as the 21st Century continues. Intel co-founder Gordon Moore predicted the growth in computing technology in 1965 stating that processor speeds and memory sizes would continue to double every two years. His predictions have proved to be entirely accurate and all progression in computing has followed the trends he laid out.
The Internet and mobile computing technology have been the most visible and significant developments in society since the start of the 21st Century. With the world 's information and ever-increasingly powerful computers at people 's fingertips it is interesting to wonder where the technology may go and what future inventions hold in store.
Looking back at developments in media over the lifespan of humanity it is easy to see a clear path from the advent of language to writing, art, music, radio, television, computers and the Internet. Each stage of this development signified a great leap forward in civilisation and quality of living. What is interesting to note is that it takes less and less time to progress to each stage as we move on. The jump from basic language to writing took thousands of years, and then thousands more to art and music. From the renaissance to the invention of radio was just a few hundred years, television arriving just decades afterwards. The world wide web reached global use within a decade of its inception.
Each of these technological leaps are notable for the fact that they would engulf the previous development. Remember the song Television Killed the Radio Star? Well it proved to be oddly prophetic as television replaced radio as the primary source of entertainment and news in the home, just as the Internet has done to both in the 2000s. The Internet is perhaps even more significant as it is looking like it will render all previous technologies obsolete, entirely engulfing them. It is possible to watch TV, listen to radio, read the news, do your shopping and almost everything in-between online. Anything that the Internet does not engulf it will become an intrinsic part of.
Given its almost certain all-pervasive nature it can be hard to see where the next leap forward may come from. What could supersede the Internet? It is foolish to think that nothing will, after all would renaissance painters have predicted the rise of television and radio? Would people in the 1940s have predicted the introduction of mobile phones and personal computers? Just because we cannot see the next step it does not mean it will not happen. At some stage the Internet will become consumed itself.
Currently all advances in technology have been made due to human intelligence. It is what separated us from animals to begin with, and it is what continues to drive us now. Ever more complex leaps have been possible as intelligence is pooled and people are able to collaborate on how to solve problems that will lead to the next advancement. Language allowed communication, and then writing allowed the storage of ideas and the passing of information to other tribes and individuals. Radio, television and Internet technology in the 20th Century has opened up human intelligence to everyone as communication becomes instantaneous world-wide. The global nature of communication in the 20th and 21st centuries are inevitably why our greatest achievements have come in the last hundred years. It is no accident that the industrial revolution occurred with the introduction of the telephone and long range communication.
So taking the fact that human intelligence and communication is guiding the development of civilisation it is reasonable to expect that we will reach the point where our own intellects are unable to take us further. I believe we are reaching the point where communication and the sharing of ideas will start to plateau. We already have instant communication to anywhere on the planet and future developments in this area will only be able to accelerate this process. Granted, faster and faster Internet access will help a great deal in sharing scientific data, but at some stage we will need greater-than-human intelligence. Some people, such as the Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence, believe that this will come from a form of artificial intelligence either through an AI software or augmentation of the human brain.
The birth of an artificial super intelligence is often referred to as the singularity in reference to the singularity of a black hole. Similar to the black hole where known laws of physics break down in the singularity at the centre so would our model of the world once it contained intelligences greater than our own. There are many technologies already combining to create an artificial intelligence and many scientists believe that the singularity will occur during our lifetimes. Certainly if Moore 's Law and the accelerating rate of paradigm shifts are anything to go by then this prediction seems reasonable.
The creation of a truly super-human AI would completely change the world and our way of living extremely rapidly. It is thought that the invention of this AI would be the last thing that the human race ever needs to design. An AI with above human intelligence would then have above human capacity to improve itself. By improving itself once it would then become more intelligent than it was before, enabling it to improve itself further. This positive feedback loop would lead to the AI becoming massively intelligent and powerful very quickly, it is possible that civilisation would change overnight as the AI exponentially increases in intelligence.
By point of comparison human neurons can send signals at a speed of 150 metres per second and the speed of light is 300,000,000 metres per second, two million times faster than the human mind. The Singularity Institute states that an increase in speed of thought by a factor of one million would mean a subjective year would take only 31 seconds and the time from ancient Greece until now would take twenty two hours. The evolution from primates to humans needed an increase in brain capacity by a factor of three. The difference between us and chimpanzees is unarguably large, so it seems easy to agree that an intelligence many factors greater than ours and magnitudes faster would be capable of things far beyond our comprehension. We are as capable of guessing what it could do as chimps are of predicting the rise of human civilisation given that the gap between brain power would be similar.
Along with the theories of a singularity and the birth of intelligent machines there are always the inevitable doomsday scenarios thought to be possible such as those depicted in films such as the Matrix and the Terminator. It is hard to say what the AI would do, and eliminating the human race may well be in its best interests. However it is likely that considerable work will go into making the AI an ally of its creators and to build a system that we are capable of working alongside to accelerate our development and improve our living conditions and understanding of the world around us. There is already a lot of work being done to ensure this happens and that we avoid the doom that popular fiction predicts.
An interesting thought is to combine the theory of the singularity with that of natural selection. We already know that machines can do things that we are incapable of doing. Robotic probes are exploring places inaccessible to humans, countless examples are visible in space exploration programs. There are robotic vehicles on Mars exploring the terrain. The landscape is too harsh for a human visitor with our current technology but machines have already made the journey. Probes have been sent to every planet in the solar system and some have even left it entirely.
It may be that mechanical life is simply more suited than carbon-based life to the conditions of the universe. A machine does not need to eat or breathe and will be able to survive low and high atmospheric pressures, making them perfect for extra terrestrial exploration. The machines will need a power source, but provided that they develop a reliably powerful way of creating energy then in theory there is nothing to stop them from colonising the solar system relatively quickly.
Machines and artificial intelligences could simply be the next step in the evolution of life on Earth, it is hard to see any animal rising above humans now with the control that we exert over the planet. By the time the Earth is swallowed into the Sun it may be that it is inhabited solely by mechanical life forms, all of which are better suited to escaping the supernova from the death of the star. In terms of the eventual fate of the planet is is clear that machines and artificial intelligence is more suited to continued existence with its capability to migrate to different planets.
By Darwinian theory it may even be said that artificial intelligence is more suited to life on Earth and will replace the life that we know today. It is certainly an interesting concept and we may even find out whether it will come true within the next fifty years. With any luck the creation of a super-intelligent machine will bring a time of great advancement that solves a lot of the major problems that face humanity today and massively enhance the standard of living across the planet.
How the Solar System Will End
How the Solar System Will End
Whatever direction life on Earth takes over the next few billion years there is one certainty. One day it will all end. Life may cease to exist on Earth before the end of the planet, there are many potential scenarios that could lead to this happening, but it is absolutely certain to end when the Sun reaches the end of its life cycle. Stars have a finite life cycle and in five and a half billion years our Sun is due to expand into a massive Red Giant, engulfing the Earth. However, whether humans are still around to see it remains debatable.
The fate of humanity realistically must be different to that of planet Earth. Given the enormous time scale until the expansion of the Sun it would seem reasonable to assume that our species would have moved on from our current form. If four billion years has been enough time for all of life on Earth to evolve to reach civilisation then by adding almost twice as much time again we'll be sure to see some drastic changes. A question is will the human race, or our descendents, remain until that time or will be have been long wiped-out?
The possible outbreak of World War Three and a nuclear apocalypse is a topic that has been widely spoken about and explored. The threat of nuclear war reached an all-time high during the Cold War and it is believed that the world stood on the brink during the Cuban missile crisis. Fortunately no bombs were launched and with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and increasing nuclear disarmament the threat of a nuclear annihilation seems to have passed.
Man 's end may come from self-imposed means or any number of natural disasters. A large impact event could prove fatal to life, and large volcanic activity, cosmic ray bursts and even extra-terrestrial invasions have been discussed by scientists as possible ends. The validity of many of these concerns is variable and the fate of mankind is enough for an article in itself, what I would like to look at here is what will certainly happen, regardless of whether our species lives or not.
The Sun, the object that provides all the energy used by the Earth, will be the cause of its end. Stars go through complex life cycles, starting with their birth and eventual demise. Each star will last billions of years, and depending on its mass and elements can form into a number of different types. Currently the Sun is a main sequence star, generating energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. The Sun will spend around 10 billion years as it is now before going on to the next stage of its life.
The Sun becomes brighter and larger as it grows older. In its first four and a half billion years it is estimated that the Sun has increased in brightness by around fourty percent. In one billion years time the Sun will have increased in brightness by around ten percent, boiling the oceans and scorching the surface. This in itself is enough to end life as we know it now. However in five and a half billion years the Sun will run out of hydrogen to burn in its core. It will start burning the hydrogen from the outer layers, shrinking the core and massively expanding the volume of the Sun, transforming it into a red giant.
Mercury and Venus will be swallowed by the growing star, while the fate of Earth is less immediately clear. If the Earth escapes being consumed by the growth of the Sun it will be burned to a charred, lifeless rock. After the red giant phase the Sun will continue to shed its outer layers into a planetary nebula until just the core remains. The core will cool into a white dwarf star and fade over billions of years. The Sun is not large enough to form a black hole or a supernova and it seems that the relatively inglorious end of forming a white dwarf is inevitable. The fate of Earth also seems to be certain and while not a concern for us living here at the moment, at some point in time it will be a very real problem, although quite what form life takes by that point remains to be seen.
Whatever direction life on Earth takes over the next few billion years there is one certainty. One day it will all end. Life may cease to exist on Earth before the end of the planet, there are many potential scenarios that could lead to this happening, but it is absolutely certain to end when the Sun reaches the end of its life cycle. Stars have a finite life cycle and in five and a half billion years our Sun is due to expand into a massive Red Giant, engulfing the Earth. However, whether humans are still around to see it remains debatable.
The fate of humanity realistically must be different to that of planet Earth. Given the enormous time scale until the expansion of the Sun it would seem reasonable to assume that our species would have moved on from our current form. If four billion years has been enough time for all of life on Earth to evolve to reach civilisation then by adding almost twice as much time again we'll be sure to see some drastic changes. A question is will the human race, or our descendents, remain until that time or will be have been long wiped-out?
The possible outbreak of World War Three and a nuclear apocalypse is a topic that has been widely spoken about and explored. The threat of nuclear war reached an all-time high during the Cold War and it is believed that the world stood on the brink during the Cuban missile crisis. Fortunately no bombs were launched and with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and increasing nuclear disarmament the threat of a nuclear annihilation seems to have passed.
Man 's end may come from self-imposed means or any number of natural disasters. A large impact event could prove fatal to life, and large volcanic activity, cosmic ray bursts and even extra-terrestrial invasions have been discussed by scientists as possible ends. The validity of many of these concerns is variable and the fate of mankind is enough for an article in itself, what I would like to look at here is what will certainly happen, regardless of whether our species lives or not.
The Sun, the object that provides all the energy used by the Earth, will be the cause of its end. Stars go through complex life cycles, starting with their birth and eventual demise. Each star will last billions of years, and depending on its mass and elements can form into a number of different types. Currently the Sun is a main sequence star, generating energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. The Sun will spend around 10 billion years as it is now before going on to the next stage of its life.
The Sun becomes brighter and larger as it grows older. In its first four and a half billion years it is estimated that the Sun has increased in brightness by around fourty percent. In one billion years time the Sun will have increased in brightness by around ten percent, boiling the oceans and scorching the surface. This in itself is enough to end life as we know it now. However in five and a half billion years the Sun will run out of hydrogen to burn in its core. It will start burning the hydrogen from the outer layers, shrinking the core and massively expanding the volume of the Sun, transforming it into a red giant.
Mercury and Venus will be swallowed by the growing star, while the fate of Earth is less immediately clear. If the Earth escapes being consumed by the growth of the Sun it will be burned to a charred, lifeless rock. After the red giant phase the Sun will continue to shed its outer layers into a planetary nebula until just the core remains. The core will cool into a white dwarf star and fade over billions of years. The Sun is not large enough to form a black hole or a supernova and it seems that the relatively inglorious end of forming a white dwarf is inevitable. The fate of Earth also seems to be certain and while not a concern for us living here at the moment, at some point in time it will be a very real problem, although quite what form life takes by that point remains to be seen.
Brain Stimulation for Athlete Performance
Brain Stimulation for Athlete Performance
Neurotechnology describes the field of technology used to manipulate and measure brain processes. In the future, will athletes increasingly begin to neurotechnology methods to get an edge over their competition? Athletes may be able to use non-invasive brain stimulation to alter their brain functioning for a beneficial effect. Already scientists have used a brain stimulation method called transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS (a non-invasive way to electrically stimulate the brain) to reduce the fatigue associated with exercise.
Transcranial direct current stimulation uses a small amount of electricity to stimulate the brain. It can be used on a person while they are wide awake and conscious. Neuromuscular fatigue is defined as the exercise dependent decrease in a person 's ability of thier muscle fibres to generate some force. Researchers discovered that anodal tDCS (that can activate localized brain areas) was able to decrease the subject 's fatigue related muscle pain. The scientists also found that anodal tDCS was able to improve the endurance time by modulating directly the brain 's excitabiliy. It was able to increase motivation, decrease fatigue related muscle pain and finally improving muscle coupling.
Another neurotechnology method to manipulate the brain is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Transcranial magnetic stimulation uses electromagnetism to stimulate specific areas of the brain. In the past it has been used to improve the working memory deficits that are associated with sleep deprivation. Working memory is a person 's general concentration and ability to store/manipulate information. So this transcranial magnetic stimulation in theory might be able improve an athletes concentration when they are fatigued. Transcranial magnetic stimulation could also be used to enhance a person 's regular concentration as well.
Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation can reach deeper into the brain than conventional TMS. Deep TMS may be able to non-invasively stimulate the reward related regions of the brain. Doing this type of brain manipulation may actually enable researchers to artificially induce a stimulant or euphoric like effect in an athlete by selectively activating specific brain regions. This type of effect would be beneficial for a long term endurance type of sport where a huge boost in mood is necessary for having an optimal performance. Deep TMS may also be used to target a variety of different regions to improve specific performance tasks.
The banned substance list that goes along with the recent olympic games does not actually have any mention about using non-invasive brain stimulation. However both transcranial direct current stimulation or transcranial magnetic stimulation may eventually find increasing use by certain athletes in the future. Right now, it still may be a little too early to actually assess how useful these new types of neurtechnologies would be for athlete 's performance.
As for cheating, using these neurotechnologies would be almost impossible to detect. Their wouldn't be any drug tests that could detect when a person had undergone this type of treatment. The on and only plausible method of detecting this type of brain manipulation might be from a brain scan. So using neurotechnology could be a very effective way of brain doping while at the same time sidestepping negative penalties from a regulatory body. Using these types of brain stimulation methods for athletes is all speculative of course, and it is currently unclear if any of these types of brain manipulation would actually have enough of an effect on performance to be worthwhile.
Neurotechnology describes the field of technology used to manipulate and measure brain processes. In the future, will athletes increasingly begin to neurotechnology methods to get an edge over their competition? Athletes may be able to use non-invasive brain stimulation to alter their brain functioning for a beneficial effect. Already scientists have used a brain stimulation method called transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS (a non-invasive way to electrically stimulate the brain) to reduce the fatigue associated with exercise.
Transcranial direct current stimulation uses a small amount of electricity to stimulate the brain. It can be used on a person while they are wide awake and conscious. Neuromuscular fatigue is defined as the exercise dependent decrease in a person 's ability of thier muscle fibres to generate some force. Researchers discovered that anodal tDCS (that can activate localized brain areas) was able to decrease the subject 's fatigue related muscle pain. The scientists also found that anodal tDCS was able to improve the endurance time by modulating directly the brain 's excitabiliy. It was able to increase motivation, decrease fatigue related muscle pain and finally improving muscle coupling.
Another neurotechnology method to manipulate the brain is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Transcranial magnetic stimulation uses electromagnetism to stimulate specific areas of the brain. In the past it has been used to improve the working memory deficits that are associated with sleep deprivation. Working memory is a person 's general concentration and ability to store/manipulate information. So this transcranial magnetic stimulation in theory might be able improve an athletes concentration when they are fatigued. Transcranial magnetic stimulation could also be used to enhance a person 's regular concentration as well.
Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation can reach deeper into the brain than conventional TMS. Deep TMS may be able to non-invasively stimulate the reward related regions of the brain. Doing this type of brain manipulation may actually enable researchers to artificially induce a stimulant or euphoric like effect in an athlete by selectively activating specific brain regions. This type of effect would be beneficial for a long term endurance type of sport where a huge boost in mood is necessary for having an optimal performance. Deep TMS may also be used to target a variety of different regions to improve specific performance tasks.
The banned substance list that goes along with the recent olympic games does not actually have any mention about using non-invasive brain stimulation. However both transcranial direct current stimulation or transcranial magnetic stimulation may eventually find increasing use by certain athletes in the future. Right now, it still may be a little too early to actually assess how useful these new types of neurtechnologies would be for athlete 's performance.
As for cheating, using these neurotechnologies would be almost impossible to detect. Their wouldn't be any drug tests that could detect when a person had undergone this type of treatment. The on and only plausible method of detecting this type of brain manipulation might be from a brain scan. So using neurotechnology could be a very effective way of brain doping while at the same time sidestepping negative penalties from a regulatory body. Using these types of brain stimulation methods for athletes is all speculative of course, and it is currently unclear if any of these types of brain manipulation would actually have enough of an effect on performance to be worthwhile.
The History Of Water Pollution
The History Of Water Pollution
Water is life. About 70% of the human body is composed of water. It is necessary for you to drink clean water. Drinking polluted water is not good for you; it can have an bad effects on your entire body. Sickness such diarrhea and cholera can even be fatal for small children. Plants and animals likewise die from being exposed to polluted water.
Let us look at a brief history of later pollution, where it came from, and what are the factors that lead to water pollution.
Ancient times
Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and streams were the source of water to drink during the ancient times. However, it is the same water bodies where human wastes were deposited. Therefore, in rivers became so polluted that the these ancient cultures needed to construct aqueducts in order to obtain clean drinking water.
The main reason for this water pollution was that human waste found its way to rivers and streams. Cesspools likewise found a way to water bodies and made many people ill.
Medieval Times-1800s
During this period most societies had very little idea of what was bad for you and what was detrimental to the environment. Mercury was commonly dumped into the water supply and most human and farm waste was allowed to run freely into lakes and streams. Most people who lived in cities just dumped their waste and garbage into the street. It probably smelled very bad.
During the latter half of this period civilization made many great strides, often to the detriment of the environment. People even ingested chemicals they thought were good for them at the time that we now know are very bad for you, like Radium and Lead.
The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s saw little care for environmental impact for the benefit of industry.
Many chemicals were pumped into the air and rivers. Most people of the day were not concerned with the impact that their inventions had on the environment. In their defense you could say that nobody had ever given much thought to the fact that the human race could even effect the ecology.
After World War II
In addition to pollutants such as human wastes, fertilizers, leather tanning, and butchering wastes, the emergence of industries and technological factories likewise caused ever more severe water pollution problems. Industrial wastes were freely dumped into rivers, lakes, and streams, polluting the water further and causing large amounts of damage to living organisms using those waters.
1969
In the year 1969, after series of fires on the Cuyahoga River, it was learned that the fires are caused by oil slicks and flammable industrial wastes dumped into it! The government then started the studies that let to the enactment of the 1972 Clean
Water Act.
Even with this act, many people are still unaware of how to protect themselves from chemical pollutants and waterborne diseases. Many large scale cleanups have been ongoing for years.
Present Day
Today, water pollution is still an issue many countries and regions face. It is therefore important for you to know the disease causing agents that may find its way to water bodies. By understanding the damage water pollution can do to your body, you may try to avoid water contamination in your own way.
Water Pollutants
Human wastes, household chemicals, fertilizers, garbage and industrial by-products are the most major water pollutants. You can help avoid them finding their way to the water you drink by learning how to dispose of them properly or avoiding their use altogether.
Other contaminants include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasites. These contaminants may be caused by human activities (like large scale farming) but there are some other sources in the environment. Tainted water such as this can cause extreme health problems. If you can ensure that the water in your community is clean by avoiding its contamination, you can help avoid bacteria and viruses reaching the water bodies.
Decomposing bacteria are likewise dangerous in large quantities because they will deplete the oxygen level of the water. This is often caused by fertilizer run-off in the form of phosphates and nitrates. The fertilizer causes blooms of algae and when the algae die they decompose.
As they rot the bacteria depletes the oxygen in the water and this often kills fish. If it can kill a fish, how do you think a small child can fight these pollutants if they enter his body?
Acids, salts and toxic metals can pollute the water extensively, making it unfit to drink. Batteries, computer parts and industrial chemicals like PCBs are some of the culprits.
These pollutants are fatal to all animals and most plants. They typically cause internal organs, such as your liver and brain, to fail work properly.
If you cannot access clean drinking water, you and your family will be at risk to diseases and other problems. Help avoid water pollution by learning to respect the environment.
Properly dispose of chemicals, whether household chemicals or industrial chemicals. Being conscious about the environment can save the life of your family and many other people in the world. Do your part in avoiding water pollution so you, your family and everyone else can live a healthy life.
Water is life. About 70% of the human body is composed of water. It is necessary for you to drink clean water. Drinking polluted water is not good for you; it can have an bad effects on your entire body. Sickness such diarrhea and cholera can even be fatal for small children. Plants and animals likewise die from being exposed to polluted water.
Let us look at a brief history of later pollution, where it came from, and what are the factors that lead to water pollution.
Ancient times
Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and streams were the source of water to drink during the ancient times. However, it is the same water bodies where human wastes were deposited. Therefore, in rivers became so polluted that the these ancient cultures needed to construct aqueducts in order to obtain clean drinking water.
The main reason for this water pollution was that human waste found its way to rivers and streams. Cesspools likewise found a way to water bodies and made many people ill.
Medieval Times-1800s
During this period most societies had very little idea of what was bad for you and what was detrimental to the environment. Mercury was commonly dumped into the water supply and most human and farm waste was allowed to run freely into lakes and streams. Most people who lived in cities just dumped their waste and garbage into the street. It probably smelled very bad.
During the latter half of this period civilization made many great strides, often to the detriment of the environment. People even ingested chemicals they thought were good for them at the time that we now know are very bad for you, like Radium and Lead.
The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s saw little care for environmental impact for the benefit of industry.
Many chemicals were pumped into the air and rivers. Most people of the day were not concerned with the impact that their inventions had on the environment. In their defense you could say that nobody had ever given much thought to the fact that the human race could even effect the ecology.
After World War II
In addition to pollutants such as human wastes, fertilizers, leather tanning, and butchering wastes, the emergence of industries and technological factories likewise caused ever more severe water pollution problems. Industrial wastes were freely dumped into rivers, lakes, and streams, polluting the water further and causing large amounts of damage to living organisms using those waters.
1969
In the year 1969, after series of fires on the Cuyahoga River, it was learned that the fires are caused by oil slicks and flammable industrial wastes dumped into it! The government then started the studies that let to the enactment of the 1972 Clean
Water Act.
Even with this act, many people are still unaware of how to protect themselves from chemical pollutants and waterborne diseases. Many large scale cleanups have been ongoing for years.
Present Day
Today, water pollution is still an issue many countries and regions face. It is therefore important for you to know the disease causing agents that may find its way to water bodies. By understanding the damage water pollution can do to your body, you may try to avoid water contamination in your own way.
Water Pollutants
Human wastes, household chemicals, fertilizers, garbage and industrial by-products are the most major water pollutants. You can help avoid them finding their way to the water you drink by learning how to dispose of them properly or avoiding their use altogether.
Other contaminants include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasites. These contaminants may be caused by human activities (like large scale farming) but there are some other sources in the environment. Tainted water such as this can cause extreme health problems. If you can ensure that the water in your community is clean by avoiding its contamination, you can help avoid bacteria and viruses reaching the water bodies.
Decomposing bacteria are likewise dangerous in large quantities because they will deplete the oxygen level of the water. This is often caused by fertilizer run-off in the form of phosphates and nitrates. The fertilizer causes blooms of algae and when the algae die they decompose.
As they rot the bacteria depletes the oxygen in the water and this often kills fish. If it can kill a fish, how do you think a small child can fight these pollutants if they enter his body?
Acids, salts and toxic metals can pollute the water extensively, making it unfit to drink. Batteries, computer parts and industrial chemicals like PCBs are some of the culprits.
These pollutants are fatal to all animals and most plants. They typically cause internal organs, such as your liver and brain, to fail work properly.
If you cannot access clean drinking water, you and your family will be at risk to diseases and other problems. Help avoid water pollution by learning to respect the environment.
Properly dispose of chemicals, whether household chemicals or industrial chemicals. Being conscious about the environment can save the life of your family and many other people in the world. Do your part in avoiding water pollution so you, your family and everyone else can live a healthy life.
The Science Of Smoking: How Smell Works
The Science Of Smoking: How Smell Works
One of the worlds largest and most valuable jewel collections, the Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia, or Crown Jewels of Iran, consists of a mind-boggling number of treasures. On display at the Museum of The Treasury of National Iranian Jewels in Tehran, Iran, the collection ranges from breathtaking tiaras to jewel-studded swords to princely thrones, and much more.
The Crown Jewels span 2500 years of the Iranian monarchy, however the majority of the collection represents the Safavid shahs who ruled Iran from 1502-1736 A.D. The founder of Safavid Dynasty of Iran, Shah Ismail I, successfully established Iran as an independent country since the 7th century A.D. This Safavid dynasty brought about the compilation of priceless gems and jewelry through a variety of means. Some were acquired as war booty, others were gifts from Europe and India, and the country 's mother-of-pearl collection was caught from the Persian Gulf.
Already considered priceless during the Safavid reign, the collection was nearly lost forever in 1722 following a raid by an Afghan ruler who besieged the country 's capital and took control. The country 's jewels were plundered and sold to Mogul rulers in India. Seven years later, Iranian forces drove the Afghans out of Persia and regained some of the stolen jewelry. Through the years, the Crown Jewels again came under attack, but Iran 's rulers continued to make attempts to re-assemble, expand and protect their treasure.
Eventually, the royal treasury was transferred to the National Bank of Iran, after a law was passed enacting the collection act as a reserve to back up the local currency. The last Shah of Iran decreed the jewels were the property of the Iranian State and transported them to the Central Bank of Iran in 1960.
While a smattering of diamonds, rubies and other gemstones glitter in this remarkable Persian fortune, two of the world 's largest and most valuable diamonds are also a part of the collection. The worth of the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Darya-ye-Noor diamond are so great they surpass monetary value.
The impressive crowns and tiaras of the Iranian Crown Jewels include the Kiani Crown, made of red velvet and surrounded by three horizontal rows of pearls around the circumference of the crown. In all, the total number of pearls on the crown number 1,800. Other jewels include rubies, emeralds and diamonds.
The Pahlavi Crown was created in 1925 and is also made of red velvet, in addition to gold, silver and encrusted jewels. At the center is a sunburst motif made of a 60-carat brilliant-cut yellow diamond. Unlike the Kiani Crown which is made mainly of pearls, the Pahlavi Crown predominantly displays diamonds.
The creation of the Empress' Crown in 1941 represented the first time in 2,500 years where the wife of the Shah was also being crowned. While not as elaborate as the Kinai and Pahlavi, the Empress' Crown is made of green velvet and white gold. Also featuring a sunburst motif in emeralds and pearls, the crown also showcases rubies and white diamonds.
A symbol of status and power, thrones hold a special significance in the 3,000-year-old history of Iran. Embellished with rare materials such as gold, silver and precious stones, Iran 's thrones create an aura of greatness.
The most splendid of Iran 's thrones was The Peacock Throne. At the time of its construction in the 1600s, the Shah Jahaan ordered his artisans and jewelers to create a raised platform-style throne that would surpass all others. Sadly, the Shah was eventually assassinated and his beloved throne was dismantled = its precious stones and gold stolen and never recovered. Thereafter, the throne of the Iranian Monarchy was known as the Peacock Throne and during this time several thrones were made which copied features of the original.
The Naderi Throne, unlike the Peacock Throne, was more chair-like and was created in the 1800s to be disassembled into separate pieces for portability. Made of wood, the throne features gold and encrusted jewels such as diamonds, rubies and spinels. In all, 26,733 jewels adorn the throne. A dazzling design depicting a peacock tail highlights the backrest, along with figures of ducks and dragons.
The throne was chosen for a moment of 20th-century history when Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi selected it for his coronation in 1967. Although he ascended the Iranian throne in 1941, Shah Pahlavi vowed to bring growth and emancipation to his country before holding a coronation. Twenty-five years later, and after much successful reform, Shah Pahlavi was crowned Iran 's ruler in a splendid ceremony, followed by the crowning of the Empress Farah Diba.
One of the worlds largest and most valuable jewel collections, the Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia, or Crown Jewels of Iran, consists of a mind-boggling number of treasures. On display at the Museum of The Treasury of National Iranian Jewels in Tehran, Iran, the collection ranges from breathtaking tiaras to jewel-studded swords to princely thrones, and much more.
The Crown Jewels span 2500 years of the Iranian monarchy, however the majority of the collection represents the Safavid shahs who ruled Iran from 1502-1736 A.D. The founder of Safavid Dynasty of Iran, Shah Ismail I, successfully established Iran as an independent country since the 7th century A.D. This Safavid dynasty brought about the compilation of priceless gems and jewelry through a variety of means. Some were acquired as war booty, others were gifts from Europe and India, and the country 's mother-of-pearl collection was caught from the Persian Gulf.
Already considered priceless during the Safavid reign, the collection was nearly lost forever in 1722 following a raid by an Afghan ruler who besieged the country 's capital and took control. The country 's jewels were plundered and sold to Mogul rulers in India. Seven years later, Iranian forces drove the Afghans out of Persia and regained some of the stolen jewelry. Through the years, the Crown Jewels again came under attack, but Iran 's rulers continued to make attempts to re-assemble, expand and protect their treasure.
Eventually, the royal treasury was transferred to the National Bank of Iran, after a law was passed enacting the collection act as a reserve to back up the local currency. The last Shah of Iran decreed the jewels were the property of the Iranian State and transported them to the Central Bank of Iran in 1960.
While a smattering of diamonds, rubies and other gemstones glitter in this remarkable Persian fortune, two of the world 's largest and most valuable diamonds are also a part of the collection. The worth of the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Darya-ye-Noor diamond are so great they surpass monetary value.
The impressive crowns and tiaras of the Iranian Crown Jewels include the Kiani Crown, made of red velvet and surrounded by three horizontal rows of pearls around the circumference of the crown. In all, the total number of pearls on the crown number 1,800. Other jewels include rubies, emeralds and diamonds.
The Pahlavi Crown was created in 1925 and is also made of red velvet, in addition to gold, silver and encrusted jewels. At the center is a sunburst motif made of a 60-carat brilliant-cut yellow diamond. Unlike the Kiani Crown which is made mainly of pearls, the Pahlavi Crown predominantly displays diamonds.
The creation of the Empress' Crown in 1941 represented the first time in 2,500 years where the wife of the Shah was also being crowned. While not as elaborate as the Kinai and Pahlavi, the Empress' Crown is made of green velvet and white gold. Also featuring a sunburst motif in emeralds and pearls, the crown also showcases rubies and white diamonds.
A symbol of status and power, thrones hold a special significance in the 3,000-year-old history of Iran. Embellished with rare materials such as gold, silver and precious stones, Iran 's thrones create an aura of greatness.
The most splendid of Iran 's thrones was The Peacock Throne. At the time of its construction in the 1600s, the Shah Jahaan ordered his artisans and jewelers to create a raised platform-style throne that would surpass all others. Sadly, the Shah was eventually assassinated and his beloved throne was dismantled = its precious stones and gold stolen and never recovered. Thereafter, the throne of the Iranian Monarchy was known as the Peacock Throne and during this time several thrones were made which copied features of the original.
The Naderi Throne, unlike the Peacock Throne, was more chair-like and was created in the 1800s to be disassembled into separate pieces for portability. Made of wood, the throne features gold and encrusted jewels such as diamonds, rubies and spinels. In all, 26,733 jewels adorn the throne. A dazzling design depicting a peacock tail highlights the backrest, along with figures of ducks and dragons.
The throne was chosen for a moment of 20th-century history when Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi selected it for his coronation in 1967. Although he ascended the Iranian throne in 1941, Shah Pahlavi vowed to bring growth and emancipation to his country before holding a coronation. Twenty-five years later, and after much successful reform, Shah Pahlavi was crowned Iran 's ruler in a splendid ceremony, followed by the crowning of the Empress Farah Diba.
All About The Planet Mars
All About The Planet Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is named after the Roman God of war. The planet is a distinctive shade of red and is the last of the rocky terrestrial planets. Mars is substantially smaller than Earth and Venus but larger than Mercury. The planet has been the subject of intense speculation about the existence of extra terrestrial life with evidence of water on the surface at the polar ice caps. While recent robotic explorations have shown that the presence of life is unlikely it has still not been conclusively ruled out.
Mars has a thin atmosphere, much thinner than Earth 's . It is kept this way by the solar winds stripping atoms from the top layer, Mars 's atmosphere lacks a magnetosphere to protect it. The surface pressure of the Martian atmosphere is less than one percent of that found on Earth. Despite the sparseness of the atmosphere however, it extends 5km higher than Earth 's due to lower gravity. Mars has a relatively low mass and the surface gravity is just 38 percent of Earth 's .
Mars is home to the largest mountain in the Solar System, Olympus Mons. It is three times higher than Mount Everest and the result of substantial volcanic activity with shallow slopes covering a massive area. Mars is also home to many other interesting geographical features such as canyons and valleys. Many of these features are attributed to running water, although it has been proved to no longer exist it is thought that at one time Mars may have had rivers on its surface. The Phoenix lander has found ice under the surface of the planet and Mars is the most water-rich location outside Earth that we have found so far.
Mars has two small moons, Phobos and Demios, both with irregular shapes. They are thought to be captured asteroids and the orbit extremely close to the planet. It is not fully understood how the moons have come to orbit Mars, however it is believed that Phobos is a relatively recent capture as it follows an unstable orbit and will collide with the Red Planet in around 50 million years.
Mars has been extensively explored by robotic spacecraft and probes by the USA, Russia, Europe and Japan. Probes began exploring Mars even before Man had landed on the Moon with the first flyby occurring in 1964. The Soviet were the first to successfully land objects on the planet, but they lost contact soon after arrival. In 1976 the NASA probes Viking 1 and 2 made it to the surface of Mars, spending several years there. They provided many images and helped to map the surface. The most recent probe to land on Mars is the Phoenix Lander. It arrived in May 2008 and began investigating the Martian soil, finding conclusive evidence of water ice. Phoenix landed much closer to the pole than any other spacecraft.
There are many future missions planned to Mars and in 2004 President George W. Bush announced that NASA 's vision for space exploration would be to launch a manned mission to the planet. NASA administrators believe that they will have successfully landed a man on Mars by 2037. Mars has been the subject of serious talk of eventual colonisation, as it is seen as the most suitable for life and the most habitable environment in the Solar System outside Earth. Mars has many of the elements needed for life present in its soil and with a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere it is thought that with some terraforming that algae may be able to survive at the poles. Terraforming Mars is an area that is being looked into as a future destination for civilisation once the increasing heat of the Sun makes Earth uninhabitable.
Mars is a charismatic planet, inspiring countless works of fiction and a massive amount of speculation about the secrets it may hold. It has been a characteristic of our space exploration that many of the early romantic ideas of conditions on the surface have been dispelled and the planet has been found to be lifeless and largely barren. Martian thinking is now turning towards finding out its past and planning for its future.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is named after the Roman God of war. The planet is a distinctive shade of red and is the last of the rocky terrestrial planets. Mars is substantially smaller than Earth and Venus but larger than Mercury. The planet has been the subject of intense speculation about the existence of extra terrestrial life with evidence of water on the surface at the polar ice caps. While recent robotic explorations have shown that the presence of life is unlikely it has still not been conclusively ruled out.
Mars has a thin atmosphere, much thinner than Earth 's . It is kept this way by the solar winds stripping atoms from the top layer, Mars 's atmosphere lacks a magnetosphere to protect it. The surface pressure of the Martian atmosphere is less than one percent of that found on Earth. Despite the sparseness of the atmosphere however, it extends 5km higher than Earth 's due to lower gravity. Mars has a relatively low mass and the surface gravity is just 38 percent of Earth 's .
Mars is home to the largest mountain in the Solar System, Olympus Mons. It is three times higher than Mount Everest and the result of substantial volcanic activity with shallow slopes covering a massive area. Mars is also home to many other interesting geographical features such as canyons and valleys. Many of these features are attributed to running water, although it has been proved to no longer exist it is thought that at one time Mars may have had rivers on its surface. The Phoenix lander has found ice under the surface of the planet and Mars is the most water-rich location outside Earth that we have found so far.
Mars has two small moons, Phobos and Demios, both with irregular shapes. They are thought to be captured asteroids and the orbit extremely close to the planet. It is not fully understood how the moons have come to orbit Mars, however it is believed that Phobos is a relatively recent capture as it follows an unstable orbit and will collide with the Red Planet in around 50 million years.
Mars has been extensively explored by robotic spacecraft and probes by the USA, Russia, Europe and Japan. Probes began exploring Mars even before Man had landed on the Moon with the first flyby occurring in 1964. The Soviet were the first to successfully land objects on the planet, but they lost contact soon after arrival. In 1976 the NASA probes Viking 1 and 2 made it to the surface of Mars, spending several years there. They provided many images and helped to map the surface. The most recent probe to land on Mars is the Phoenix Lander. It arrived in May 2008 and began investigating the Martian soil, finding conclusive evidence of water ice. Phoenix landed much closer to the pole than any other spacecraft.
There are many future missions planned to Mars and in 2004 President George W. Bush announced that NASA 's vision for space exploration would be to launch a manned mission to the planet. NASA administrators believe that they will have successfully landed a man on Mars by 2037. Mars has been the subject of serious talk of eventual colonisation, as it is seen as the most suitable for life and the most habitable environment in the Solar System outside Earth. Mars has many of the elements needed for life present in its soil and with a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere it is thought that with some terraforming that algae may be able to survive at the poles. Terraforming Mars is an area that is being looked into as a future destination for civilisation once the increasing heat of the Sun makes Earth uninhabitable.
Mars is a charismatic planet, inspiring countless works of fiction and a massive amount of speculation about the secrets it may hold. It has been a characteristic of our space exploration that many of the early romantic ideas of conditions on the surface have been dispelled and the planet has been found to be lifeless and largely barren. Martian thinking is now turning towards finding out its past and planning for its future.
All About The Planet Jupiter
All About The Planet Jupiter
Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System and is the innermost of the gas giants. Named after the Roman King of the Gods the planet is located beyond the asteroid belt. Jupiter orbits between 740 million and 778 million km from the Sun and is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium. It is the fourth brightest object in the sky behind the Moon, Sun and Venus and has an extremely fast rotation period, completing one every ten hours. The planet takes eleven years to complete an orbit of the Sun.
Jupiter is quite unlike Earth and its neighbours as it is mostly composed of gases rather than heavier elements. Jupiter is two and a half times more massive than all the other planets put together and is about as large as a planet of its type can grow. If it were to take on more mass the diameter would actually decrease from the increased gravity. If it were 75 times larger then it would be able to fuse hydrogen and become a star, this has lead some astronomers to label the planet as a failed star. However despite its humble status as a planet Jupiter does create a substantial amount of its own heat, generating more than it receives from the Sun.
The atmosphere of Jupiter is made of many distinctive bands of gas and light elements. Different areas of the planet have been shown to rotate at different speeds, and there are many storms present. The most notable storm on Jupiter is the Great Red Spot. This giant anomaly on the surface of the planet is larger than Earth and is a storm that has been raging ever since we first discovered the planet. Jupiter is peppered with similar storms and recently three large grey ones merged into one storm, similar to the red spot.
Jupiter has only been explored by automatic deep-space probes, there is no surface to land on and there have been no landings on any of its moons yet. The first probe to fly-by Jupiter was the Pioneer 10 in 1973. Pioneers 10 and 11 would gather a multitude of images and date about the planet, detecting the magnetic field and radiation belts. In 1979 Voyagers 1 and 2 passed Jupiter followed by Ulysses in 1992. The only probe to orbit Jupiter is the Galileo spacecraft, which reached the gas giant in 1995. The craft stayed in orbit for seven years, releasing an atmospheric probe in July 1995. The probe descended into Jupiter and sent back data for 57 minutes before it was crushed by the pressure. Eventually Galileo was sent into the planet in order to prevent it crashing into and contaminating any of Jupiter 's moons.
Jupiter has 63 moons, some of which are among the largest objects in the Solar System. The four largest are Io, Callisto, Ganymede and Europa, known as the Galilean moons after their discoverer Galileo. The moons of Jupiter are among the most interesting bodies in the Solar System with some striking geological activity and possible sites for life. The moon Europa may be the site of a liquid ocean underneath its icy crust and is a place that scientists are extremely interested in exploring. The moons of Jupiter are not as cold and lifeless as they may be otherwise due to tidal flexing providing friction on the inside of the planet and keeping them active. Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System with over 400 volcanoes, Ganymede is the largest non-planet and Callisto is considered a possible site for extra-terrestrial microbial life.
Jupiter is not as openly considered for colonisation as our nearby planets Mars and Venus. The giant planet does however offer an inviting location for a stepping stone into the outer Solar System. Its many moons could make good places for colonies and may even provide economic benefits through mining. The future will see further missions to the moons to look for signs of life and liquid oceans.
Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System and is the innermost of the gas giants. Named after the Roman King of the Gods the planet is located beyond the asteroid belt. Jupiter orbits between 740 million and 778 million km from the Sun and is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium. It is the fourth brightest object in the sky behind the Moon, Sun and Venus and has an extremely fast rotation period, completing one every ten hours. The planet takes eleven years to complete an orbit of the Sun.
Jupiter is quite unlike Earth and its neighbours as it is mostly composed of gases rather than heavier elements. Jupiter is two and a half times more massive than all the other planets put together and is about as large as a planet of its type can grow. If it were to take on more mass the diameter would actually decrease from the increased gravity. If it were 75 times larger then it would be able to fuse hydrogen and become a star, this has lead some astronomers to label the planet as a failed star. However despite its humble status as a planet Jupiter does create a substantial amount of its own heat, generating more than it receives from the Sun.
The atmosphere of Jupiter is made of many distinctive bands of gas and light elements. Different areas of the planet have been shown to rotate at different speeds, and there are many storms present. The most notable storm on Jupiter is the Great Red Spot. This giant anomaly on the surface of the planet is larger than Earth and is a storm that has been raging ever since we first discovered the planet. Jupiter is peppered with similar storms and recently three large grey ones merged into one storm, similar to the red spot.
Jupiter has only been explored by automatic deep-space probes, there is no surface to land on and there have been no landings on any of its moons yet. The first probe to fly-by Jupiter was the Pioneer 10 in 1973. Pioneers 10 and 11 would gather a multitude of images and date about the planet, detecting the magnetic field and radiation belts. In 1979 Voyagers 1 and 2 passed Jupiter followed by Ulysses in 1992. The only probe to orbit Jupiter is the Galileo spacecraft, which reached the gas giant in 1995. The craft stayed in orbit for seven years, releasing an atmospheric probe in July 1995. The probe descended into Jupiter and sent back data for 57 minutes before it was crushed by the pressure. Eventually Galileo was sent into the planet in order to prevent it crashing into and contaminating any of Jupiter 's moons.
Jupiter has 63 moons, some of which are among the largest objects in the Solar System. The four largest are Io, Callisto, Ganymede and Europa, known as the Galilean moons after their discoverer Galileo. The moons of Jupiter are among the most interesting bodies in the Solar System with some striking geological activity and possible sites for life. The moon Europa may be the site of a liquid ocean underneath its icy crust and is a place that scientists are extremely interested in exploring. The moons of Jupiter are not as cold and lifeless as they may be otherwise due to tidal flexing providing friction on the inside of the planet and keeping them active. Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System with over 400 volcanoes, Ganymede is the largest non-planet and Callisto is considered a possible site for extra-terrestrial microbial life.
Jupiter is not as openly considered for colonisation as our nearby planets Mars and Venus. The giant planet does however offer an inviting location for a stepping stone into the outer Solar System. Its many moons could make good places for colonies and may even provide economic benefits through mining. The future will see further missions to the moons to look for signs of life and liquid oceans.
Construction Of Efficient HHO Fuel Cells
Construction Of Efficient HHO Fuel Cells
There has been a lot of work and research in the field of hydrogen fuel cell construction by many companies. The BMW automobile company has a very promising system. On a global level, hydrogen technology addresses the growing gaps in the supply of fossil fuels. More specifically, it is the only fuel that can allow for a reduction in the overall emission cycle, while meeting our energy needs in a sustainable way. Besides, not many fuels can be produced from renewable sources.
BMW has developed a fuel cell system that produces Hydrogen with the power of the sun. They have a way of safely storing this liquid Hydrogen, in metal halide tanks. This absorbs the liquid hydrogen and stores it in the special metal inside the halide tanks which renders the Hydrogen safe. These tanks will not explode when tested in collision tests, when exposed to fire, and yes, even shot with a firearm.
Instead of exploding, they ignite and smolder. The metal halide tank technology is by no means new. We have been storing hydrogen and other Gases in these type of metal containers for a number of years now.
BMW uses 2 portable tanks which are taken out of the vehicle and charged at your home or office. They as previously mentioned use solar to power the Fuel Cells, to make this compressed, liquid Hydrogen. The unit that houses the fuel cell looks like a commercial battery jump starter that you would see at a car lot or commercial garage.
The BMW SUV has a 260-horsepower 12-cylinder internal combustion engine capable of running on either premium-grade gasoline or hydrogen, the company said. The car will be able to switch fuels automatically when the liquid hydrogen tank runs dry, BMW said, with no change in performance. The driver can also switch fuel sources by pressing a button. The dual-mode system provides the car with a cruising range of more than 400 miles, according to BMW. The car can run for 125 miles on just the hydrogen tank alone and another 325 miles on gasoline.
There are systems available today that allow you to produce HHO and burn it in conjunction with gasoline or diesel to increase your engines performance and engine life. Work is continually going on to manufacture high output hydrogen fuel cells that make Hydrogen on board the vehicle. Most states in the U.S. do not have a special classification for such vehicle as of yet, but we can be sure that they will soon.
There is production of fuel cells that do not produce hydrogen, instead, they separate protons and electrons and fuel special lithium ion batteries with electricity. This in turn powers electric motors. Honda motor company has such a vehicle out at present. Its called the,"Honda FCX Clarity".
This type of vehicle requires Hydrogen Fuel Filling Stations, which are still uncommon today. The Clarity has a rather limited range of 280 miles to the tank(of liquid hydrogen.). But, Honda has a very interesting idea for making, storing and using Hydrogen in your home and refueling your vehicle.
Honda has operated an experimental Home Energy Station in Torrance, California, since 2003. The Home Energy Station, which generates hydrogen from natural gas, is designed to provide heat and electricity for the home through Fuel Cell Co-generation and to supply fuel for a hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicle. Honda has also developed the still experimental home energy station which is even more efficient and better suited for home use than previous versions. CO2 emissions for this system were 30% lower than conventional homes.
There has been a lot of work and research in the field of hydrogen fuel cell construction by many companies. The BMW automobile company has a very promising system. On a global level, hydrogen technology addresses the growing gaps in the supply of fossil fuels. More specifically, it is the only fuel that can allow for a reduction in the overall emission cycle, while meeting our energy needs in a sustainable way. Besides, not many fuels can be produced from renewable sources.
BMW has developed a fuel cell system that produces Hydrogen with the power of the sun. They have a way of safely storing this liquid Hydrogen, in metal halide tanks. This absorbs the liquid hydrogen and stores it in the special metal inside the halide tanks which renders the Hydrogen safe. These tanks will not explode when tested in collision tests, when exposed to fire, and yes, even shot with a firearm.
Instead of exploding, they ignite and smolder. The metal halide tank technology is by no means new. We have been storing hydrogen and other Gases in these type of metal containers for a number of years now.
BMW uses 2 portable tanks which are taken out of the vehicle and charged at your home or office. They as previously mentioned use solar to power the Fuel Cells, to make this compressed, liquid Hydrogen. The unit that houses the fuel cell looks like a commercial battery jump starter that you would see at a car lot or commercial garage.
The BMW SUV has a 260-horsepower 12-cylinder internal combustion engine capable of running on either premium-grade gasoline or hydrogen, the company said. The car will be able to switch fuels automatically when the liquid hydrogen tank runs dry, BMW said, with no change in performance. The driver can also switch fuel sources by pressing a button. The dual-mode system provides the car with a cruising range of more than 400 miles, according to BMW. The car can run for 125 miles on just the hydrogen tank alone and another 325 miles on gasoline.
There are systems available today that allow you to produce HHO and burn it in conjunction with gasoline or diesel to increase your engines performance and engine life. Work is continually going on to manufacture high output hydrogen fuel cells that make Hydrogen on board the vehicle. Most states in the U.S. do not have a special classification for such vehicle as of yet, but we can be sure that they will soon.
There is production of fuel cells that do not produce hydrogen, instead, they separate protons and electrons and fuel special lithium ion batteries with electricity. This in turn powers electric motors. Honda motor company has such a vehicle out at present. Its called the,"Honda FCX Clarity".
This type of vehicle requires Hydrogen Fuel Filling Stations, which are still uncommon today. The Clarity has a rather limited range of 280 miles to the tank(of liquid hydrogen.). But, Honda has a very interesting idea for making, storing and using Hydrogen in your home and refueling your vehicle.
Honda has operated an experimental Home Energy Station in Torrance, California, since 2003. The Home Energy Station, which generates hydrogen from natural gas, is designed to provide heat and electricity for the home through Fuel Cell Co-generation and to supply fuel for a hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicle. Honda has also developed the still experimental home energy station which is even more efficient and better suited for home use than previous versions. CO2 emissions for this system were 30% lower than conventional homes.
Hydrogen Will Change The Future Of The Automotive Industry
Hydrogen Will Change The Future Of The Automotive Industry
With the prices of gasoline on the rise, and the amount of fossil fuels consumed by the United States, coupled with the effect green house gases are having on our environment, it comes as no surprise that alternative fuels in the automotive industry are being researched.
We hear politicians talk about our fuel alternatives and mention electricity as a real possibility for the automotive industry. We hear things like senator McCain offering enormous amounts of incentive monies to help develop a battery that would help,Jump Start the Electric Car Industry.
It is very important that we, The american people, devote a substantial amount of time considering all our alternatives. During this time of research and the real efforts of many to make the difficult transition away from Fossil Fuels to alternative fuel sources, that we take into consideration all ramifications of each possible alternative fuel we have at our disposal.
Electric cars are a real possibility, as long as politicians and big money push for this,clean technology. In reality, one must consider the number of existing automobile owners that do not have the financial means to buy new electric automobiles. There are literally millions of automobiles on U.S. roads at the present, none of which would reap any benefits from a change to electricity.
What would be done to help these motorists? What would be done with millions of gasoline burning vehicles? As Americans, we like to think that we are capable of recycling most everything within reason. But, in a perfect world, if every U.S. citizen was able to make the switch to electric cars, we would have one very large amount of scrap iron to deal with and while we are on the subject of waste and recycling. What impact would electric cars have on our environment?
Electric cars take batteries. Not just any kind of batteries, but highly developed lithium ion batteries. Batteries are inherently wasteful due to the fact they inevitably die, or lose their ability to store energy. Will these toxic batteries be the next mountains in our waste dumps?
Hydrogen on the other hand, is a viable alternative to fossil fuel for our vehicles. And, for the millions of vehicles on the U.S. roads at present, could be outfitted to make and use hydrogen gas as fuel. There is even some use of hydrogen in conjunction with natural gas to fuel commercial vehicles such as buses and cargo trucks at present. This is a proven, clean, green technology.
Hydrogen, being the most abundant element on Earth as well as in our universe should be highly considered as a fossil fuel alternative. Outfitting vehicles with hydrogen producing fuel cells the produce hydrogen onboard the vehicle, to be burned in their combustion engines, not only reduces green house gas emissions but would ease our dependence of fossil fuels with very little waste.
This, in the view of Hydrogen Operated, makes perfect sense. As the world watches America as an example and eventually follows our lead, we could make the transition to hydrogen, and every American citizen would be able to easily afford the small conversion needed to enjoy the immediate benefits of hydrogen power. By not only producing automobiles that both burn hydrogen or in the case of Hondas new car, the Clarity, convert hydrogen into electricity to be used with electric motors, we can keep many of the present day automobiles on the road and out of the scrap yards.
When choosing the next fuel source, Hydrogen operated says,that we must take the long term use and impact to our environment into consideration.Government, both state and federal, must take steps to encourage the use of hydrogen. States must allow alteration or elimination to existing vehicles pollution or smog control devices as to allow motorist full capability to utilize hydrogen as a fuel.
As long as the vehicle passes the pollution test levels imposed by the state and federal governments, their wasteful, unneeded smog and fuel management systems must go. The States need to encourage all alternative fuel endeavors, not just those few that our wasteful automotive industry supplies us.
A company in Arizona, has an inexpensive, Supplemental hydrogen fuel system that can be added to virtually any vehicle in America. The high output fuel cell provides more than enough hydrogen that can be utilized in our automobiles as they are currently configured. With just a very small engine conversion, one would experience 30% increase in mileage guaranteed.This is just the beginning, states Hydrogen Operated Founder, Todd M. Ash.When the majority of automobiles make the conversion, we will see our green house emission fall sharply. Couple this with other nations following suite and we could see a real significant change in our global warming problem
With the prices of gasoline on the rise, and the amount of fossil fuels consumed by the United States, coupled with the effect green house gases are having on our environment, it comes as no surprise that alternative fuels in the automotive industry are being researched.
We hear politicians talk about our fuel alternatives and mention electricity as a real possibility for the automotive industry. We hear things like senator McCain offering enormous amounts of incentive monies to help develop a battery that would help,Jump Start the Electric Car Industry.
It is very important that we, The american people, devote a substantial amount of time considering all our alternatives. During this time of research and the real efforts of many to make the difficult transition away from Fossil Fuels to alternative fuel sources, that we take into consideration all ramifications of each possible alternative fuel we have at our disposal.
Electric cars are a real possibility, as long as politicians and big money push for this,clean technology. In reality, one must consider the number of existing automobile owners that do not have the financial means to buy new electric automobiles. There are literally millions of automobiles on U.S. roads at the present, none of which would reap any benefits from a change to electricity.
What would be done to help these motorists? What would be done with millions of gasoline burning vehicles? As Americans, we like to think that we are capable of recycling most everything within reason. But, in a perfect world, if every U.S. citizen was able to make the switch to electric cars, we would have one very large amount of scrap iron to deal with and while we are on the subject of waste and recycling. What impact would electric cars have on our environment?
Electric cars take batteries. Not just any kind of batteries, but highly developed lithium ion batteries. Batteries are inherently wasteful due to the fact they inevitably die, or lose their ability to store energy. Will these toxic batteries be the next mountains in our waste dumps?
Hydrogen on the other hand, is a viable alternative to fossil fuel for our vehicles. And, for the millions of vehicles on the U.S. roads at present, could be outfitted to make and use hydrogen gas as fuel. There is even some use of hydrogen in conjunction with natural gas to fuel commercial vehicles such as buses and cargo trucks at present. This is a proven, clean, green technology.
Hydrogen, being the most abundant element on Earth as well as in our universe should be highly considered as a fossil fuel alternative. Outfitting vehicles with hydrogen producing fuel cells the produce hydrogen onboard the vehicle, to be burned in their combustion engines, not only reduces green house gas emissions but would ease our dependence of fossil fuels with very little waste.
This, in the view of Hydrogen Operated, makes perfect sense. As the world watches America as an example and eventually follows our lead, we could make the transition to hydrogen, and every American citizen would be able to easily afford the small conversion needed to enjoy the immediate benefits of hydrogen power. By not only producing automobiles that both burn hydrogen or in the case of Hondas new car, the Clarity, convert hydrogen into electricity to be used with electric motors, we can keep many of the present day automobiles on the road and out of the scrap yards.
When choosing the next fuel source, Hydrogen operated says,that we must take the long term use and impact to our environment into consideration.Government, both state and federal, must take steps to encourage the use of hydrogen. States must allow alteration or elimination to existing vehicles pollution or smog control devices as to allow motorist full capability to utilize hydrogen as a fuel.
As long as the vehicle passes the pollution test levels imposed by the state and federal governments, their wasteful, unneeded smog and fuel management systems must go. The States need to encourage all alternative fuel endeavors, not just those few that our wasteful automotive industry supplies us.
A company in Arizona, has an inexpensive, Supplemental hydrogen fuel system that can be added to virtually any vehicle in America. The high output fuel cell provides more than enough hydrogen that can be utilized in our automobiles as they are currently configured. With just a very small engine conversion, one would experience 30% increase in mileage guaranteed.This is just the beginning, states Hydrogen Operated Founder, Todd M. Ash.When the majority of automobiles make the conversion, we will see our green house emission fall sharply. Couple this with other nations following suite and we could see a real significant change in our global warming problem
Run Your Car On Hydrogen Fuel
Run Your Car On Hydrogen Fuel
You may have heard of hydrogen powered cars before, but generally when they are referred to people think of "fuel cell" vehicles prototyped by different car manufacturers. There is another type of hydrogen powered vehicle, one that uses hydrogen not as a primary fuel, but supplementally. In fact, anyone can convert their existing car to run on the hydrogen/gas/oxygen mix, at a low cost.
Now when I say hydrogen, I am referring to HHO or Brown 's gas specifically. This is a clean burning, highly explosive fuel whose exhaust is only water vapor! When retrofitted onto a gas-powered vehicle it produces fuel on demand from the water itself, as opposed to having a cell that needs to be filled with pure hydrogen. This eliminates the high cost of the storage medium, which is difficult to produce and made up of exotic materials. In fact, all the materials you'll need to produce your HHO unit can be purchased for less than 50 dollars at your local hardware store!
Water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. To separate the molecule into its constituent parts so that it can be burned, you will need to electrolyze the water. There are an unlimited number of designs you can use to achieve this goal, but the principle is always the same. Two metal plates are positioned very close together, roughly 2mm apart. An electric current is passed between the plates, one positive, and one negative. When electricity is introduced, the water between the plates "splits" into its constituent parts and bubbles up as gas.
Stainless steel must always be used within the generator to avoid corrosion. An electrolyte such as baking soda may be added to the water to increase its conductivity, and therefore the amount of hydrogen being produced. Electricity from your car 's battery is what powers this process, and the switch is wired through the ignition as a safety feature.
Well now that you've got some hydrogen being produced, how are you supposed to use it? Quite simply, (after a flashback arrestor and bubbler are added for safety) all you do is run a tube from the output of the HHO cell, directly into your intake manifold! The gas will mix with the air being sucked into the engine, adding more power to the explosive fuel/air mixture inside your cylinder. Emissions, power, and gas mileage are all increased, provided you take the necessary steps.
Some things to consider before you get started; HHO is extremely powerful and fairly volatile, and as such the utmost care must be taken to ensure the safety of those working on the project. Do as much research as you can before making your prototype and heed the warnings! Do not use material for your cell construction that will fragment and turn into a grenade if it does happen to explode, such as a glass jar. Additionally, most cars have 1 or more oxygen sensors that test the intake air for oxygen levels, so that the vehicle knows how much fuel to inject into the engine. If you introduce additional oxygen into your intake and it is sensed by your car, your car 's computer inject more gasoline to keep the fuel to air ratio correct. This will likely negate any increase in mileage, but can be remedied with a small electronic part that you can wire in between your sensor and your ECU which allows for the adjustment of the oxygen sensor 's output. Adjustments will probably be necessary.
Hopefully you will now be encouraged to experiment for yourself. I believe you will find that it is quite a bit easier than you imagined to run your car on hydrogen fuel. Now get to the hardware store!
You may have heard of hydrogen powered cars before, but generally when they are referred to people think of "fuel cell" vehicles prototyped by different car manufacturers. There is another type of hydrogen powered vehicle, one that uses hydrogen not as a primary fuel, but supplementally. In fact, anyone can convert their existing car to run on the hydrogen/gas/oxygen mix, at a low cost.
Now when I say hydrogen, I am referring to HHO or Brown 's gas specifically. This is a clean burning, highly explosive fuel whose exhaust is only water vapor! When retrofitted onto a gas-powered vehicle it produces fuel on demand from the water itself, as opposed to having a cell that needs to be filled with pure hydrogen. This eliminates the high cost of the storage medium, which is difficult to produce and made up of exotic materials. In fact, all the materials you'll need to produce your HHO unit can be purchased for less than 50 dollars at your local hardware store!
Water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. To separate the molecule into its constituent parts so that it can be burned, you will need to electrolyze the water. There are an unlimited number of designs you can use to achieve this goal, but the principle is always the same. Two metal plates are positioned very close together, roughly 2mm apart. An electric current is passed between the plates, one positive, and one negative. When electricity is introduced, the water between the plates "splits" into its constituent parts and bubbles up as gas.
Stainless steel must always be used within the generator to avoid corrosion. An electrolyte such as baking soda may be added to the water to increase its conductivity, and therefore the amount of hydrogen being produced. Electricity from your car 's battery is what powers this process, and the switch is wired through the ignition as a safety feature.
Well now that you've got some hydrogen being produced, how are you supposed to use it? Quite simply, (after a flashback arrestor and bubbler are added for safety) all you do is run a tube from the output of the HHO cell, directly into your intake manifold! The gas will mix with the air being sucked into the engine, adding more power to the explosive fuel/air mixture inside your cylinder. Emissions, power, and gas mileage are all increased, provided you take the necessary steps.
Some things to consider before you get started; HHO is extremely powerful and fairly volatile, and as such the utmost care must be taken to ensure the safety of those working on the project. Do as much research as you can before making your prototype and heed the warnings! Do not use material for your cell construction that will fragment and turn into a grenade if it does happen to explode, such as a glass jar. Additionally, most cars have 1 or more oxygen sensors that test the intake air for oxygen levels, so that the vehicle knows how much fuel to inject into the engine. If you introduce additional oxygen into your intake and it is sensed by your car, your car 's computer inject more gasoline to keep the fuel to air ratio correct. This will likely negate any increase in mileage, but can be remedied with a small electronic part that you can wire in between your sensor and your ECU which allows for the adjustment of the oxygen sensor 's output. Adjustments will probably be necessary.
Hopefully you will now be encouraged to experiment for yourself. I believe you will find that it is quite a bit easier than you imagined to run your car on hydrogen fuel. Now get to the hardware store!
Asteroid Apophis - The End of Our Planet?
Asteroid Apophis - The End of Our Planet?
If you ask anyone if they know what Apophis 99942 is then the answer will likely be a blank one. Ask the same question again in 2029 and then in 2036 then people will most definitely be more aware. Apophis 99942 is a near-Earth asteroid and for a brief while was considered the most likely object to collide with Earth. In 2029 it will make a record-breaking near miss of our planet and in 2036 it will return with a 1 in 45,000 chance of hitting Earth.
Apophis is estimated to be 415m long and incredibly heavy, in 2029 it will pass within the range of geosynchronous satellites. Objects of this size are only thought to pass this close every 1,300 years. It will be visible to the naked eye as it makes its approach and will appear as a starlike object moving across the night sky. When the asteroid was first discovered initial estimates put the impact probability at 1 in 37, moving it up to four out of ten on the Torino scale, the highest anything has ever been.
However with more work on computing the orbit of Apophis astronomers were able to rule out an impact in 2029 and state that an impact in 2036 looked unlikely. The asteroid was discovered and named by Roy Tucker and David Tholen. Apophis was the Greek name for the Egyptian god Apep the Uncreator. Apep lived in the underworld and tries to swallow Ra as he passes. Despite a seemingly appropriate name it is rumoured that Tholen and Tucker named the asteroid after the character of the same name from their favourite TV show, Stargate SG-1, a being who sought to destroy the Earth.
Although in 2008 the likelihood of Apophis hitting the Earth has been proven to be very small it did for a while start to make scientists wonder what the effects would be should the asteroid actually strike our planet. An object of the size of Apophis would generate an explosion with the equivalent energy of 880 megatons of TNT. By comparison the eruption of Krakatoa was 200 megatons and the Tunguska event released 3-10 megatons of TNT equivalent energy. The impact would be severe and affect a huge area, but thought to be light enough that the Earth would avoid some of the more serious events, such as an impact winter.
Although Apophis is considered a low risk, its initial status of 4/10 on the Torino scale prompted talk of how we would deal with any future Earthbound asteroids. Many possible ideas have been looked at including deflection and nuking. Deflecting asteroids is seen as favourable to blowing them up as all that may do is create a stream of smaller asteroids that still hit the Earth. To deflect an orbit of an asteroid a small craft would drill into the surface of the rock and then eject material to slowly move the asteroid off-course.
For the moment we're safe from asteroid impact, but NASA cannot possibly track every single body out there. Thankfully our atmosphere takes care of much of the smaller bodies and provides fantastic protection from asteroid impact. However, there is one body over 1km in diameter with a probability of hitting Earth. Asteroid 29075 1950 DA is rated 2/10 on the Torino scale and will make its pass in the year 2880.
Fortunately for us its still a long way off and gives us ample time to work out an effective defense mechanism. An object the size of 1950 DA would have serious consequences for human civilisation and be very harmful for the climate and biosphere. Luckily for us we have nearly 900 years to work on a solution.
If you ask anyone if they know what Apophis 99942 is then the answer will likely be a blank one. Ask the same question again in 2029 and then in 2036 then people will most definitely be more aware. Apophis 99942 is a near-Earth asteroid and for a brief while was considered the most likely object to collide with Earth. In 2029 it will make a record-breaking near miss of our planet and in 2036 it will return with a 1 in 45,000 chance of hitting Earth.
Apophis is estimated to be 415m long and incredibly heavy, in 2029 it will pass within the range of geosynchronous satellites. Objects of this size are only thought to pass this close every 1,300 years. It will be visible to the naked eye as it makes its approach and will appear as a starlike object moving across the night sky. When the asteroid was first discovered initial estimates put the impact probability at 1 in 37, moving it up to four out of ten on the Torino scale, the highest anything has ever been.
However with more work on computing the orbit of Apophis astronomers were able to rule out an impact in 2029 and state that an impact in 2036 looked unlikely. The asteroid was discovered and named by Roy Tucker and David Tholen. Apophis was the Greek name for the Egyptian god Apep the Uncreator. Apep lived in the underworld and tries to swallow Ra as he passes. Despite a seemingly appropriate name it is rumoured that Tholen and Tucker named the asteroid after the character of the same name from their favourite TV show, Stargate SG-1, a being who sought to destroy the Earth.
Although in 2008 the likelihood of Apophis hitting the Earth has been proven to be very small it did for a while start to make scientists wonder what the effects would be should the asteroid actually strike our planet. An object of the size of Apophis would generate an explosion with the equivalent energy of 880 megatons of TNT. By comparison the eruption of Krakatoa was 200 megatons and the Tunguska event released 3-10 megatons of TNT equivalent energy. The impact would be severe and affect a huge area, but thought to be light enough that the Earth would avoid some of the more serious events, such as an impact winter.
Although Apophis is considered a low risk, its initial status of 4/10 on the Torino scale prompted talk of how we would deal with any future Earthbound asteroids. Many possible ideas have been looked at including deflection and nuking. Deflecting asteroids is seen as favourable to blowing them up as all that may do is create a stream of smaller asteroids that still hit the Earth. To deflect an orbit of an asteroid a small craft would drill into the surface of the rock and then eject material to slowly move the asteroid off-course.
For the moment we're safe from asteroid impact, but NASA cannot possibly track every single body out there. Thankfully our atmosphere takes care of much of the smaller bodies and provides fantastic protection from asteroid impact. However, there is one body over 1km in diameter with a probability of hitting Earth. Asteroid 29075 1950 DA is rated 2/10 on the Torino scale and will make its pass in the year 2880.
Fortunately for us its still a long way off and gives us ample time to work out an effective defense mechanism. An object the size of 1950 DA would have serious consequences for human civilisation and be very harmful for the climate and biosphere. Luckily for us we have nearly 900 years to work on a solution.
All About The Mystery of Black Holes
All About The Mystery of Black Holes
Black holes are among the strangest objects in the Universe. Hard to find, hard to explain, hard to understand and hard to imagine they defy the known laws of physics at their centre and provide mind boggling results at their edges. A black hole is impossible to see but there has been enough evidence to certify their existence. They are an important part of the solar life cycle and perhaps an even more important factor in galaxy formation.
In 1785 a man named Peirre Simon Laplace concluded that if enough mass were packed into a sufficiently small space that the gravity would be so intense that not even light would be able to escape. The idea is based on escape velocities being proportional to the mass of an object. For example, the energy needed to escape the gravitational pull of Earth is 19,700 mph greater than what is needed to break free of the Moon.
Laplace theorised that when gravity reaches a massively high value that the escape velocity would be faster than the speed of light, trapping light particles and rendering the object invisible. During the early 20th century physicists such as Oppenheimer, Volkoff, Snyder and notably Karl Schwarzschild would refine the theory and provide mathematical formulae to back it up.
The only known way for a black hole to form is from the death of a massive star, this is the only way that such a huge mass can be packed into such a small volume. During the main phase of their life stars are trying to explode through nuclear fusion but at the same time are held together by their own gravity. These two forces balance the volume of the star and will define its size.
When the star runs out of fuel for nuclear fusion then there is no outward force and so gravity causes it collapse in on itself. The collapse heats up the core to a massive degree and will cause a supernova explosion. After the supernova all that is left of the star is a highly compressed core, continually collapsing under its own gravity. The gravity becomes so strong that light cannot escape and so a black hole is formed.
Black holes effect spacetime in strangely different ways to other bodies. They cannot be seen by visible light, but have a number of interesting properties. The defining feature of black holes is the event horizon, a real point of no return. The event horizon is the point at which the gravity becomes so intense the the escape velocity reaches light speed. The horizon surrounds the singularity at the centre of the black hole and effectively forms the mouth of the black hole. From the outside, nothing inside the event horizon can be seen.
Outside the event horizon objects can orbit the black hole like they would any other large body of mass. The escape velocity will increase the closer you get to the horizon, but at a large enough distance the orbit will be no different to orbiting a star or planet
Crossing the event horizon will prove fatal to anyone that tried. In theory if one were able to cross an event horizon in a spacecraft it would seem initially unremarkable. Far away objects would appear distorted due to gravitational lensing but you would still be able to see out of the black hole into space. As your craft flies further from the horizon it would experience tidal forces so strong that eventually it would torn apart, right down to the atomic level. The time frame for this happening varies depending on the size of the singularity at the centre but is typically just a few seconds.
What can be confusing is thinking about what a distant observer would see as your doomed craft flew into the black hole. As the approach to the event horizon is made the light will take longer and longer to leave the craft because of the intense gravitational pull. This would make it seem as if the craft is slowing down in time until it reaches a point where the light takes an infinitely long time to reach the observer. Time would appear to stop for an outsider, and it is a property that gave black holes their original name of frozen stars.
There is also the fact that the gravity will cause a massive amount of time dilation to occur, meaning that time actually will pass more slowly for objects close to a black hole than those far away. Both theories are correct and it is one of the most intriguing properties of black holes. In reality an observer would see the craft slow right down and appear more red as the light is red-shifted.
Black holes cannot be seen from Earth but can be detected in a number of ways. One is through gravitational lensing. According to Einstein 's theory of general relativity gravity distorts both space and time. A star or a planet will cause an effect similar to a heavy ball on a rubber sheet, and it is this effect which causes the orbits we can see today. Gravity can also bend light and an massively intense gravitational pull will bend light much more and distort the light from objects behind it. Black holes have been detected from Earth by observing the effects on the light travelling from distant stars such as duplicate images or intense brightening.
Black holes are thought to exist at the centre of most galaxies. They are the only known objects that can reach a sufficient mass within the volumes observed. The mass of supermassive black holes believed to be at the centre of galaxies is measured by observing the orbit speeds of the objects surrounding it. It is a technique that is used to similar effect to work out the mass of bodies in the Solar System such as the Sun and Jupiter.
In mid-2008 there were some fears that the Large Hadron Collider would create a micro black hole that would destroy the Earth. In reality these black holes would be far to small to do this and would evaporate almost instantly. Despite the fears being ill-founded the thought of the planet being swallowed by a black hole showed how much these enigmatic objects have captured the public imagination. They're often used as plot devices in science fiction, and the mysterious nature of the event horizon further adds to their intrigue. Black holes are certainly one of the most interesting phenomena in the Universe, and let 's hope that we never get too close to one.
Black holes are among the strangest objects in the Universe. Hard to find, hard to explain, hard to understand and hard to imagine they defy the known laws of physics at their centre and provide mind boggling results at their edges. A black hole is impossible to see but there has been enough evidence to certify their existence. They are an important part of the solar life cycle and perhaps an even more important factor in galaxy formation.
In 1785 a man named Peirre Simon Laplace concluded that if enough mass were packed into a sufficiently small space that the gravity would be so intense that not even light would be able to escape. The idea is based on escape velocities being proportional to the mass of an object. For example, the energy needed to escape the gravitational pull of Earth is 19,700 mph greater than what is needed to break free of the Moon.
Laplace theorised that when gravity reaches a massively high value that the escape velocity would be faster than the speed of light, trapping light particles and rendering the object invisible. During the early 20th century physicists such as Oppenheimer, Volkoff, Snyder and notably Karl Schwarzschild would refine the theory and provide mathematical formulae to back it up.
The only known way for a black hole to form is from the death of a massive star, this is the only way that such a huge mass can be packed into such a small volume. During the main phase of their life stars are trying to explode through nuclear fusion but at the same time are held together by their own gravity. These two forces balance the volume of the star and will define its size.
When the star runs out of fuel for nuclear fusion then there is no outward force and so gravity causes it collapse in on itself. The collapse heats up the core to a massive degree and will cause a supernova explosion. After the supernova all that is left of the star is a highly compressed core, continually collapsing under its own gravity. The gravity becomes so strong that light cannot escape and so a black hole is formed.
Black holes effect spacetime in strangely different ways to other bodies. They cannot be seen by visible light, but have a number of interesting properties. The defining feature of black holes is the event horizon, a real point of no return. The event horizon is the point at which the gravity becomes so intense the the escape velocity reaches light speed. The horizon surrounds the singularity at the centre of the black hole and effectively forms the mouth of the black hole. From the outside, nothing inside the event horizon can be seen.
Outside the event horizon objects can orbit the black hole like they would any other large body of mass. The escape velocity will increase the closer you get to the horizon, but at a large enough distance the orbit will be no different to orbiting a star or planet
Crossing the event horizon will prove fatal to anyone that tried. In theory if one were able to cross an event horizon in a spacecraft it would seem initially unremarkable. Far away objects would appear distorted due to gravitational lensing but you would still be able to see out of the black hole into space. As your craft flies further from the horizon it would experience tidal forces so strong that eventually it would torn apart, right down to the atomic level. The time frame for this happening varies depending on the size of the singularity at the centre but is typically just a few seconds.
What can be confusing is thinking about what a distant observer would see as your doomed craft flew into the black hole. As the approach to the event horizon is made the light will take longer and longer to leave the craft because of the intense gravitational pull. This would make it seem as if the craft is slowing down in time until it reaches a point where the light takes an infinitely long time to reach the observer. Time would appear to stop for an outsider, and it is a property that gave black holes their original name of frozen stars.
There is also the fact that the gravity will cause a massive amount of time dilation to occur, meaning that time actually will pass more slowly for objects close to a black hole than those far away. Both theories are correct and it is one of the most intriguing properties of black holes. In reality an observer would see the craft slow right down and appear more red as the light is red-shifted.
Black holes cannot be seen from Earth but can be detected in a number of ways. One is through gravitational lensing. According to Einstein 's theory of general relativity gravity distorts both space and time. A star or a planet will cause an effect similar to a heavy ball on a rubber sheet, and it is this effect which causes the orbits we can see today. Gravity can also bend light and an massively intense gravitational pull will bend light much more and distort the light from objects behind it. Black holes have been detected from Earth by observing the effects on the light travelling from distant stars such as duplicate images or intense brightening.
Black holes are thought to exist at the centre of most galaxies. They are the only known objects that can reach a sufficient mass within the volumes observed. The mass of supermassive black holes believed to be at the centre of galaxies is measured by observing the orbit speeds of the objects surrounding it. It is a technique that is used to similar effect to work out the mass of bodies in the Solar System such as the Sun and Jupiter.
In mid-2008 there were some fears that the Large Hadron Collider would create a micro black hole that would destroy the Earth. In reality these black holes would be far to small to do this and would evaporate almost instantly. Despite the fears being ill-founded the thought of the planet being swallowed by a black hole showed how much these enigmatic objects have captured the public imagination. They're often used as plot devices in science fiction, and the mysterious nature of the event horizon further adds to their intrigue. Black holes are certainly one of the most interesting phenomena in the Universe, and let 's hope that we never get too close to one.
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